“Constructivism is a theory of learning, and
it is also a theory of knowing. It is an
epistemological concept that draws from a variety of fields, including
philosophy, psychology, and science” (Walker & Lambert, 1995 p. 1). Constructivism "has become de rigueur in
educational circles and ... stems from a long and respected tradition in
cognitive psychology, especially the writings of Dewey, Vygotsky, and
Piaget" (Danielson, 1996, p. 23).
Ernst von Glasersfeld's basic principles of radical constructivism are
the following:
1. Knowledge is not passively received either
through the senses or by way of communication, but it is actively built up by
the cognising subject.
2. The function of cognition is adaptive and
serves the subject's organization of the experiential world, not the discovery
of an objective ontological reality.
(von Glasersfeld, 1988, p. 83)
His principles are built on the ideas of Jean
Piaget, who applied the biological concept of adaptation to epistemology (von
Glasersfeld, 1996). Von Glasersfeld
(1993, p. 24) refers to his ideas as "postepistemological" because
his radical constructivism posits a different relationship between knowledge
and the external world than does traditional epistemology.
Theories about conceptual
change have been built on constructivist principles. Conceptual change can be subdivided into
differentiation in which new concepts emerge from more general concepts, class
extension in which existing concepts become cases of another subsuming concept,
and re-conceptualization in which nature of and relationship between concepts
changes significantly (Dykstra, Boyle and Monarch, 1992). After dissatisfaction with existing
conceptions, requirements for conceptual change are that the new conception be
intelligible, plausible, and fruitful (Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog,
1982). The status of a conception is
increased as more of these three conditions are met (Hewson, 1996).
A constructivist view does
not lead to a simple, uncontested set of rules for pedagogical practice. General agreement is that students need
interaction with the physical world and with their peers to stimulate
meaning-making. The teacher elicits
students’ initial beliefs about the subject to be studied and about the nature
of learning. The teacher sets up
situations that will cause dissatisfaction with existing ideas. Realizing that students' expectations affect
their observations and that multiple approaches to problem solving are
acceptable, the teacher monitors students' understandings, requests from them
evidence and justification, provides constraints for their thinking, and gives
them opportunities to represent their knowledge in a variety of ways. The teacher's role also includes introducing,
when necessary, new ways of thinking about phenomena and working with
symbols. Then the teacher guides and
supports students as they make sense of these ideas and tools for themselves in
cooperation with their classmates (Driver, 1995; Driver, Asoko, Leach,
Mortimer, & Scott, 1994; Duit, 1995; Fosnot, 1996; Lewin, 1995; Rubin,
1995; Tobin & Tippins, 1993; von Glasersfeld, 1995).
Constructivist approaches to
teaching and cooperative learning techniques can be thought of as having both
personal and interpersonal components.
Each person constructs his or her own mental frameworks and conceptions
using preferred learning styles.
However, this is seldom done in isolation. The cognitive developmental perspective
emphasizes that participants should engage in discussion in which cognitive
conflict is resolved and inadequate reasoning is modified. Language passing back and forth between
individuals in written and oral forms is viewed as indispensable for the
development of understanding (Belenky et al, 1986; Driver, 1995; von
Glasersfeld, 1995). The social
interdependence perspective has the assumption that the way social
interdependence is structured determines how individuals interact. This, in turn, determines what is
accomplished by the group (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). Intrinsic motivation is generated by
interpersonal factors and joint aspirations.
At the same time that students become more aware of and take more
responsibility for their own thinking, they increase their understanding and
appreciation of other people’s thinking.
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